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Also See Section A Remarkable Book Called The Bible
Purpose: Most Christians understand that the Bible they hold in their hands is the inspired Word of God. Yet very few have a general understanding of the origin of the Bible. The purpose of this class, therefore, is to show the student how the Bible came to be and why it can be accepted as the unerring, authoritative Word of God.
C O N T E N T S
Introduction to “How We Got the Bible” 4
Revelation: God Has Spoken 5
Inspiration: The God-breathed Scriptures 8
Structure and Divisions of the Bible 11
The Making of the Bible 17
Canonicity: Determining and Discovering the God-inspired Books 20
Development of the Old Testament Canon 23
Old Testament Apocrypha and Pseudepigrapha 28
Development of the New Testament Canon 36
New Testament Antilegomena, Apocrypha and Pseudepigrapha 42
Texts and Manuscripts of the Old Testament 44
Texts and Manuscripts of the New Testament 47
Textual Criticism 51
History of the English Bible 53
Recommended Books 62
Bibliography 63.
Introduction to “How We Got the Bible”
I. Why a class on how we got our Bible?
A. To be informed If we claim the Bible as the Word of God we should have a basic understanding of how it came to be.
B. To give a defense 1 Peter 3:15 states, “but sanctify Christ as Lord in your hearts, always being ready to make a defense to everyone who asks you to give an account for the hope that is in you, yet with gentleness and reverence.” Christians should be able to explain intelligently the basis of the Christian faith. This certainly would include our trust in the Bible.
C. To have greater assurance A study of “how we got our Bible” will give you greater assurance that the Bible you hold in your hand is accurate and truly represents what God originally gave to the prophets.
II. The four main links in the revelatory process The study of How We Got Our Bible can be summarized into four main sections—Inspiration, Canonization, Transmission and Translation.
A. Inspiration The first link in the chain of revelation is inspiration. Inspiration deals with what God did, namely, breathing out the Scriptures. Inspiration is what gives the Bible its authority.
B. Canonization The second link, canonization, deals with how the inspired books of God came to be recognized as Holy Scripture. Inspiration tells us how the Bible received its authority; canonization tells us how these books came to be accepted by men.
C. Transmission The third link, transmission, deals with how the original autographs of the Bible were copied and whether these copies accurately reflect the original autographs.
D. Translation The fourth link, translation, discusses the translation of the Bible into other languages and whether the Bible in our language accurately reflects what the Hebrew and Greek manuscripts said.
Revelation: God Has Spoken
I. Definition The word “revelation” comes from the Greek word apokalupsis, which means “disclosure” or “unveiling.” “Revelation has to do with disclosing, uncovering, or unveiling what previously was hidden, making known what had been secret. When used theologically. . . revelation refers to God’s deliberate manifestation of his plans, his character, and himself” (William B. Nelson, Jr. , “Revelation,” in The Oxford Companion To The Bible, p. 649.).
II. Categories of Revelation There are two avenues through which God has taken the initiative to reveal Himself—General and Special revelation.
A. General revelation General revelation deals with “the truths God has revealed about Himself to all mankind through nature, providential control, and conscience” (Paul Enns. The Moody Handbook of Theology, p. 645). General revelation, though not adequate to procure salvation, reveals certain truths about God’s nature to all humanity.
1. Nature God has revealed important truths about Himself and the guilt of man through nature.
a. Psalm 19:1-6 “The heavens are telling of the glory of God; and their expanse is declaring the work of His hands.” Nature reveals God’s glory and the facts that He exists.
b. Romans 1:18-21 “For since the creation of the world His invisible attributes, His eternal power and divine nature, have been clearly seen, being understood through what has been made, so that they are without excuse.” Creation also shows that God is all-powerful and that the whole human race is guilty of sin and without excuse.
2. Providence God has revealed Himself through providential control.
a. Matthew 5:45 God has graciously given people the sunshine and rain they need to function.
b. Acts 14:15-17 God has graciously provided food, rain and gladness for people.
c. Daniel 2:21 God’s control is seen through the raising up and removing of world rulers.
3. Conscience God has given man an intuitional knowledge concerning Himself in the heart of man. According to Romans 2:14-15, every person has the Law of God “written in their hearts” thus knowing right from wrong. .
B. Special revelation Special revelation is narrower in focus than general revelation. Special revelation involves the various means God used to communicate His message. By way of contrast, though general revelation is available to everyone, special revelation is available only to those who have access to biblical truth. Hebrews 1:1 tells us that “God. . . spoke long ago to the fathers in the prophets in many portions and in many ways.” The avenues of special revelation God has used include:
1. The Lot The casting of lots sometimes communicated God’s will to man (Proverbs 16:33; Acts 1:21-26).
2. The Urim and Thummim The Urim and Thummim were two precious stones on the breastplate of the high priest that were sometimes used to determine the will of God (Ex. 28:30; Num. 27:21; Deut. 33:8; 1 Sam. 28:6).
3. Dreams God used dreams to communicate at various times in the Old Testament (Gen. 20:3; 31:11-13, 24; 40-41).
4. Visions Sometimes God used visions as He did with Isaiah and Ezekiel (Isa. 1:1; 6:1; and Ezek. 1:3).
5. Audible voice God sometimes spoke with an audible voice (1 Sam. 3:4; Luke 9:35).
6. Theophanies Before the incarnation of Christ, God sometimes manifested Himself, often as the Angel of the Lord, to communicate His divine message to the people (Gen. 16:7-14; Ex. 3:2; 2 Sam. 24:16; Zech. 1:12).
7. Angels Angels at times carried God’s message to people (Dan. 9:20-21; Luke 2:10-11; and Rev. 1:1).
8. The Prophets Old Testament and New Testament prophets received direct revelation and brought God’s message to mankind (2 Sam. 23:2; Zech 1:1; and Eph. 3:5).
9. Miracles and Events God used sign miracles and events such as the deliverance of Israel to reveal Himself.
10. Jesus Christ “God, after He spoke long ago to the fathers in the prophets in many portions and in many ways, in these last days has spoken to us in His Son” (Heb. 11:1-2). Special revelation centers in Jesus Christ.
a. John 1:1 He is the “Word” because He is the complete revelation of the Father.
b. John 1:18 He reveals what the Father is like.
c. John 5:36-37 He reveals the Father’s compassion.
d. John 6:63; 14:10 He reveals that the Father gives eternal life through the Son.
e. Matthew 11:27 He determines who will know the Father.
f. John 14:9 To know Jesus is to know the Father.
11. The Bible The Bible serves as the most inclusive of all the avenues of special revelation for it encompasses the other avenues of special revelation. Plus, though special revelation centers in the person of Christ, all that can be known about Jesus Christ is known through the Bible. In a very real way, then, it can be said that special revelation is restricted solely to the Bible.
a. 2 Timothy 3:16-17 Scripture reveals all the doctrine, rebuke, correction and guidance that is needed for godly living.
b. 2 Peter 1:21 The Scripture reveals all that God has chosen to reveal to man through human authors directed by the Holy Spirit.
Inspiration: The God-breathed Scriptures
The most basic question about the nature of the Bible centers in its claim to be “inspired” or to be the “Word of God.” What is meant by “inspiration” is the subject of this section.
I. Necessity of inspiration “Inspiration is necessary to preserve the revelation of God. If God has revealed Himself but the record of that revelation is not accurately recorded, then the revelation of God is subject to question. Hence, inspiration guarantees the accuracy of the revelation” (Enns, p. 159).
II. Definition and meaning of inspiration The English word “inspiration” in its theological usage comes from 2 Timothy 3:16. The word is used to translate the Greek term theopneustos which means “God-breathed.” “Inspiration may be defined as the Holy Spirit’s superintending over the writers [of Scripture] so that while writing according to their own styles and personalities, the result was God’s Word written—authoritative, trustworthy, and free from error in the original autographs” (Enns, p. 160).
III. Differences between inspiration and revelation Revelation concerns the origin and giving of truth while inspiration relates to the reception and recording of truth. “Inspiration is the means God used to achieve His revelation in the Bible. Inspiration involves man in an active sense, whereas revelation is solely the activity of God. . . . Inspiration as a total process includes both the prophet and the product of his pen” (Norman L. Geisler and William E. Nix, A General Introduction to the Bible, 1986. pp. 39-40).
IV. Elements of inspiration Several important elements belong in a proper definition of inspiration.
A. Divine element The prime mover in inspiration is God. God the Holy Spirit superintended the writers, ensuring the accuracy of the writing. Though men are involved in the process, the Bible originated with God and was authorized by Him.
1. 2 Timothy 3:16 “All Scripture is inspired by God and profitable . . . .”
2. 2 Peter 1:20-21 “But know this first of all, that no prophecy of Scripture is a matter of one’s own interpretation, for no prophecy was ever made by an act of human will, but men moved by the Holy Spirit spoke from God.” Concerning the divine element in prophecy, Herman Hoyt states, “This [1:21] means that prophecy not only did not originate with man but also even the function of communicating did not originate in his own will. If left to himself, the prophet would not have conveyed the message. It was, therefore, necessary for God to bring the prophetic message to men through the prophet, the Holy Spirit accomplishing the task by bearing him along” (Herman A. Hoyt, Studies in 2 Peter. Winona Lake: BMH Books. p. 49).
B. Human element Though the Bible comes from God the human writers played an important role in the overall process of inspiration. As they wrote under the direction of the Holy Spirit, they used their own individual writing styles. “In inspiration, then, God is the primary cause, and the prophets are the secondary causes. Thus the divine influence did not restrict human activity but rather enabled the human authors to communicate the divine message accurately” (Geisler and Nix, p. 39).
V. Inspiration clarified
A. What is inspired—the writer or his writings? “The person as well as his pen is under the direction of the Holy Spirit in the total process of inspiration. Nevertheless, the New
Testament reserves the word “inspiration” only for the product of that process, that is the writings, of graphe [Scripture] (2 Tim. 3:16)” (Geisler and Nix, p. 41).
B. What is inspired—the autographs or the copies? Inspiration applies specifically to the original autographs of the Bible not to copies and translations. This should not cause concern about whether the Bible one holds is truly the Word of God. As Geisler says, “Even when the accuracy of a reading in the original text cannot be known with 100 percent accuracy, it is possible to be 100 percent certain of the truth preserved in the texts that survive. It is only in minor details that any uncertainty abut the textual rendering exists, and no major doctrine rests on any one minor detail. A good translation will not fail to capture the overall teaching of the original. In this sense, then, a good translation will have doctrinal authority, although actual inspiration is reserved for the autographs” (Geisler and Nix, p. 44).
VI. Results of inspiration
A. An Inerrant Bible The result of the divine-human authorship is a message without error. If God is true (Rom. 3:4) and the Bible comes from God (2 Tim. 3:16), then the Bible must be true in all its parts. That is why the Bible is said to be inerrant. “Inerrancy is the view that when all the facts become known, they will demonstrate that the Bible in its original autographs and correctly interpreted is entirely true and never false in all it affirms, whether that relates to doctrine or ethics or to the social, physical, or life sciences” (Paul D. Feinberg in Evangelical Dictionary of Theology, ed. Walter A. Elwell. Grand Rapids: Baker. p. 142).
B. A verbal revelation Inspiration applies to the words of Scripture not just to the ideas. As 1 Corinthians 2:12-13 states, “Now we have received, not the spirit of the world, but the Spirit who is from God, that we might know the things freely given to us by God, which things we also speak, not in words taught by human wisdom, but in those taught by the Spirit, combining spiritual thoughts with spiritual words” (Emphasis mine). Verbal inspiration can also be seen in the many “it is written” statements (Matt. 4:4, 7, 10) and the fact that Jesus said not even the smallest part of a Hebrew word or letter could be broken (Matt. 5:18).
C. A Bible inspired in all its parts (Plenary) All parts of the Bible are equally inspired. Thus, the Bible is fully inspired in all its parts. As 2 Timothy 3:16 says, “All Scripture is
inspired by God” (emphasis mine). This includes matters pertaining to science and history.
D. An unbreakable Word of God The Bible is unbreakable or infallible. Jesus said in John 10:35, “the Scripture cannot be broken.”
E. An authoritative standard Jesus and the Apostles used the Scriptures as the final authority in all matters (Matt. 4:4, 7, 10; Acts 17:2).
VII. False views of inspiration
A. Natural inspiration This view holds that there is no supernatural element involved in the writing of Scripture. The writers of the Bible were men of unusual religious insight writing on religious subjects in the same way men like Shakespeare wrote literature. HOWEVER, Scripture is clear that God was supernaturally involved in inspiring the books of the Bible.
B. Spiritual illumination “The illumination view suggests that some Christians may have spiritual insight that although similar to other Christians is greater in degree. In this view any devout Christian, illuminated by the Holy Spirit, can be the author of inspired Scripture. Adherents to this view suggest it is not the writings that are inspired, rather it is the writers who are inspired” (Enns, p. 161). HOWEVER, the Bible claims that its own writings are inspired.
C. Partial or dynamic inspiration This view holds that the parts of the Bible related to matters of faith and practice are inspired, but matters relating to history, science or chronology may be in error. HOWEVER, who decides which parts of the Bible are in error and which parts are not? PLUS: how can doctrine be separated from history when much of doctrine is based on historical factors? How can the Bible be trustworthy in one area but not another?
D. Conceptual inspiration This view holds that only the concepts or ideas of the writers are inspired not the words. Thus error can occur as the human puts God’s ideas into his own words. HOWEVER, the Bible affirms verbal inspiration (see 1 Cor. 2:12-13).
E. Divine dictation “The dictation theory is the teaching that God actually dictated the Bible to the writers. Passages where the Spirit is depicted as telling the author precisely what to write are regarded as applying to the entire Bible” (Millard J. Erickson, Christian Theology. Grand Rapids: Baker. 1985, p. 207). HOWEVER: if this theory were true how does this explain the differences in writing styles of the various authors? If this theory were true we would expect that the style of all the books of the Bible would be uniform.
F. Neo-orthodox opinion According to this view, the Bible in written, verbal form is not the revealed Word of God. However, it can become the Word of God if it points a person to an experiential encounter with Christ. HOWEVER, the Bible is the objective authoritative Word of God whether a person believes it or not. It does not “become” the Word of God; it “is” the Word of God. .
[Also See Inspiration of The Bible]
Structure and Divisions of the Bible
I. Definitions
A. Bible “Bible” is the name commonly used to designate the thirty-nine books of the Old Testament and the twenty-seven books of the New Testament. These sixty-six books make up one book —the Bible. The English word Bible came originally from the name of the papyrus or byblos reed used extensively in antiquity for making scrolls and books. The term, biblion thus meant “book” or “scroll.” By the second century A. D. Greek Christians called their sacred Scriptures ta Biblia (“the books”). The singular translation came into English via Latin and Old French as “Bible.” The term “Bible” is often used synonymously with “Scripture” and “Word of God.”
B. Testament The Bible is one book but it is divided into two parts called Testaments. The term, “Testament” (berith in Hebrew and diatheke in Greek) means “covenant. The Old Testament was written and preserved by the Jewish Community before the time of Christ and the New Testament was composed by the followers of Christ during the first century A. D.
II. Old Testament Classifications
A. Hebrew form (see chart entitled Hebrew/Protestant/Catholic Old Testament Categories, p. 11) The Hebrew Bible is composed of twenty-four books. The earliest division of the Hebrew Bible was twofold—the Law and the Prophets. This is the most common distinction in the New Testament and is confirmed by Jewish usage and the Dead Sea Scrolls. In less ancient times, however, the Jewish Bible was arranged in three sections—1) the Law, 2) the Prophets, and 3) the Writings.
B. Greek form The Hebrew Scriptures were translated into Greek at Alexandria, Egypt (c. 250—150 B. C.). This translation was known as the Septuagint (LXX). The Alexandrian tradition arranged the Old Testament according to subject matter and became the basis for our modern classification of the Old Testament—1) five books of Law, 2) twelve books of History, 3) five books of Poetry and 4) seventeen books of Prophecy.
NOTE: The Hebrew classification of the Old Testament totals twenty-four books while the Greek order totals thirty-nine. How can this be? The answer is that the Jews enumerated the Old Testament books differently. The twelve minor prophets were considered one book. 1 and 2 Samuel were considered one book. The same holds true for 1 and 2 Kings, 1 and 2 Chronicles and Ezra-Nehemiah. Though the classifications are different between the Hebrew and Greek forms, the same books are in both forms.
C. Latin form “The grouping of books in the Latin Bible (the Vulgate) follows that of the Septuagint (LXX), or Greek version. Jerome, who translated the Latin Vulgate (c. 383-405), was familiar with the Hebrew division, but Christendom as a whole had come to favor (or be associated with) the Greek version; thus it was only natural for him to adopt its fourfold classification.” (Norman L. Geisler and William E. Nix, A General Introduction to the Bible. Chicago: Moody Press. 1986. p. 26)
D. English form Following the Latin Vulgate, which had been the standard Bible for a thousand years, Wycliffe’s first English Bible followed the fourfold division of its Latin precursor. All subsequent English versions follow this fourfold division (Law, History, Poetry and Prophecy).
III. New Testament classification (see chart entitled New Testament Classification, p. 12) The books of the New Testament have been classified into four groups: 1) Gospels, 2) History, 3) Epistles and 4) Prophecy.
IV. Chapter and verse divisions The earliest Bibles have no chapter and verse distinctions. Stephen Langton, a professor at the University of Paris, divided the Bible into chapters in 1227. Later, Robert Stephanus, a Paris printer, added verses in 1551 and 1555.
Hebrew/Protestant/Catholic Old Testament Categories
Hebrew Bible (24 books)
The Law
Genesis, Exodus, Leviticus, Numbers, Deuteronomy,
The Prophets
Joshua, Judges, Samuel, Kings, Isaiah, Jeremiah, Ezekiel, The 12 Minor Prophets,
The Writings
Psalms, Proverbs, Job, Song of Solomon, Ruth, Lamentations, Ecclesiastes, Esther, Daniel, Ezra-Nehemiah, Chronicles
Protestant Bible (39 books)
The Law
Genesis, Exodus, Leviticus, Numbers, Deuteronomy,
The Writings
Psalms, Proverbs, Job, Song of Solomon, Ruth, Lamentations, Ecclesiastes, Esther, Daniel, Ezra-Nehemiah, Chronicles
Poetry/Wisdom
Job, Psalms, Proverbs, Ecclesiastes, Song of Solomon, Prophecy, Isaiah, Jeremiah, Lamentations, Ezekiel, Daniel, Hosea, Joel, Amos, Obadiah, Jonah, Micah, Nahum, Habakkuk, Zephaniah, Haggai, Zechariah, Malachi.
Roman Catholic Bible (46 books)
The Law
Genesis, Exodus, Leviticus, Numbers, Deuteronomy
History
Joshua, Judges, Ruth, 1 and 2 Samuel, 1 and 2 Kings, 3 and 4 Kings (Chron), Ezra, Nehemiah, *Tobit, *Judith, Esther, *1 Maccabees, *2 Maccabees
Poetry/Wisdom
Job, Psalms,,Proverbs, Ecclesiastes, Song of Solomon, *Wisdom of Solomon, *Ecclesiastieus, (Sirach)
Prophecy
Isaiah, Jeremiah, Lamentations, *Baruch, Ezekiel, Daniel, Hosea, Joel, Amos, Obadiah, Jonah, Micah, Nahum, Habakkuk, Zephaniah, Haggai, Zechariah, Malachi
*Apocrypha books accepted as canonical by Roman Catholic Church.
The Roman Catholic Church also accepts as canonical additions to Daniel (Song of the Three Young Men; Susanna; and Bel and the Dragon) and additions to Esther
New Testament Classification,
Gospels (4)
1. Matthew, 2. Mark, 3. Luke, 4. John
History (1)
Acts
Epistles (21)
Pauline (13)
1. Romans, . 1 Corinthians, 3. 2 Corinthians, 4. Galatians, 5. Ephesians, 6. Philippians, 7. Colossians, 8. 1 Thess, 9. 2 Thess, 10. 1 Timothy, 11. 2 Timothy, 12. Titus, 13. Philemon, General (8), 14. Hebrews, 15. James, 16. 1 ,Peter, 17. 2 Peter, 18. 1 John, 19. 2 John, 20. 3 John, 21. Jude
Prophecy (1)
Revelation.
Time Period of Bible
The time span for the writing of the Bible covers approximately fifteen-hundred years.
Old Testament (1445—400 B. C.)
Genesis (1445), Exodus (1445), Leviticus (1445), Numbers (1405), Deuteronomy (1405), Joshua (1405—1385), Judges (1043), Ruth (1000), 1 and 2 Samuel (1000—900), 1 and 2 Kings (561—538), 1 and 2 Chronicles , 450—430), Ezra (457—444), Nehemiah (425), Esther (475), Job (lived in patriarchal times), Psalms (1450—500), Proverbs (950), Ecclesiastes (931), Song of Solomon (960), Isaiah (740), Jeremiah (561), Lamentations (586) ,Ezekiel (570), Daniel (536), Hosea (750), Joel (830), Amos (760), Obadiah (845), Jonah (780), Micah (735), Nahum (661—612), Habakkuk (609),, Zephaniah (635), Haggai (520), Zechariah (520—518), Malachi (430),
New Testament (A. D. 50—100)
Matthew (50), Mark (50), Luke (60-61), John (80-90), Acts (63), Romans (56), 1 Corinthians (54-55), 2 , orinthians (55-56), Galatians (48), Ephesians (61), Philippians (62), Colossians (61), 1 Thessalonians (51), 2 , hessalonians (51), 1 Timothy (62), 2 Timothy (64), Titus (63), Philemon (61), Hebrews (65), James (45), 1 ,Peter (65), 2 Peter (67), 1 John (85), 2 John (90), 3 John (90), Jude (70), Revelation (95).
The Making of the Bible
I. The Bible and early writings
A. Bible not the oldest book “Our Bible is a very old book, but it is by no means the oldest book in the world. Discoveries made within the last century show that writing was a well-established art in many countries long before the beginnings of the Hebrew nation in the land of Palestine” (Neil Lightfoot, How We Got the Bible, p. 14).
B. The beginning of writing “The earliest known examples of writing carry us into the ancient land of Egypt and into Mesopotamia. We do not know exactly when or where writing began. . . . What is known is that an early Sumerian limestone tablet is extant, a written text which is dated about 3500 B. C. What is also known is that Egyptian hieroglyphs were in a developmental stage at least by 3000 B. C. In Palestine itself letters written by governors of cities date to about 1400 B. C” (Lightfoot, p. 14).
C. Implication of other early writings on the Bible It was formerly held by some liberal critics that Moses could not have written the first five books of the Bible since writing was unknown in the days of Moses. Now, however, we know that writing was generally practiced many centuries before Moses. This argument, then, is no longer valid.
II. Writing materials of Bible times The ancient people of Palestine and adjoining countries used many kinds of materials for writing purposes. The Bible makes reference to some of these materials.
A. Stone In almost every area the earliest material on which writing has been found is stone.
1. The Ten Commandments The earliest writing material mentioned in the Old Testament is stone. The Ten Commandments were written on stone (Ex. 31:18; 34:1, 28).
2. Joshua and the memorial stones After Israel crossed the Jordan, stones with the Law written on them were set up as a memorial (Deut. 27:2-3 with Josh. 8:30-32).
B. Clay The predominant writing material of Assyria and Babylonia was clay. Huge libraries of clay tablets have been discovered from these areas. Clay material is referred to in Ezekiel 4:1 when Ezekiel was told to draw a plan of Jerusalem on a tile.
C. Wood The use of wooden tablets was common in Greece, Egypt and Palestine. The tablets mentioned in Isaiah 30:8 and Habakkuk 2:2 were probably wooden.
D. Leather “For hundreds of years leather or animal skins played an important role in the history of the Bible. Leather is not specified in the Old Testament, but it was unquestionably the principal material employed for literary purposes by the Hebrews.” (Lightfoot, p. 16) (See Jeremiah 36:23). .
E. Papyrus Papyrus was the most important writing material during the inter-testamental and New Testament times. In fact, it is almost certain that the original New Testament letters were penned on papyrus sheets.
1. What was papyrus? Papyrus sheets came from papyrus reeds that grew in abundance along the Nile river in Egypt. Papyrus reeds “were manufactured into a writing material by cutting the leaves into long thin strips, laying these pieces criss/cross upon each other and saturating them with a calcium solution. The product was the equivalent of the best handmade paper” (G. S. Wegener, 6,000 Years of the Bible, New York: Harper and Row, 1963, p. 58).
2. Papyrus rolls Papyrus rolls were the “books” of the ancient world until the second century. These “rolls” were thirty feet long and nine to ten inches high. Writing was usually done on one side of the scroll (one exception is Revelation 5:1).
3. Papyrus codex By the second century the papyrus roll gave way to the papyrus codex. A codex manuscript is simply a book. Papyrus sheets were put together in the form of a book instead of joining them side by side to make a roll.
F. Vellum or parchment Vellum and parchment (used interchangeably) refers to animal skins dressed for writing purposes. Because of the high price of papyrus, vellum became a less expensive substitute. By the fourth century vellum replaced papyrus. The use of vellum is significant because this was the material used to make copies of the New Testament for over a thousand years (fourth century —Middle Ages). The two most valuable New Testament manuscripts, the Vatican and Sinaitic manuscripts, are made of high-quality vellum.
G. Paper The production of paper stretches back to the second century B. C. with the Chinese. The secrets of paper making, though, were not widely made known until the middle of the eighth century when Arabs captured some Chinese men who were skilled in making paper. By the time of the thirteenth century paper was being used in much of Europe. A considerable number of Biblical manuscripts, especially from the East, were written on paper. (Lightfoot, p. 20)
III. Languages of the Bible The Bible was originally written in three languages —Hebrew, Aramaic and Greek.
A. Hebrew Almost all of the Old Testament was written in Hebrew.
1. Semitic language “Hebrew is of a large family of languages known as Semitic, and is akin to such languages as Aramaic, Syriac, Akkadian (Assyrian-Babylonian) and Arabic” (Lightfoot, p. 29).
2. Much different from English Unlike Greek in which many of the letters and words are recognizable to English speaking people, Hebrew is a “strange” language in that it is written backwards (from our standpoint) from right to left, it has many sounds that differ from English forms, and has a vocabulary unrelated to English words. Plus, the Hebrew alphabet is without vowels.
B. Aramaic Though most of the Old Testament was written in Hebrew, some portions were written in Aramaic. Aramaic sections of the Old Testament include: 1) two words as a place-name in Genesis 31:47, 2) one verse in Jeremiah 10:11, 3) six chapters in Daniel (2:4b—7:28) and several chapters in Ezra (4:8—6:18; 7:12-26).
1. Similarities to Hebrew Aramaic is a kindred language to Hebrew. In fact, anyone not trained in the languages of Hebrew and Aramaic would not be able to tell the difference between these two languages in the Old Testament because they look so similar.
2. Beginning of Aramaic among the Jews Aramaic became the language of the common people in Palestine after the time of the exile (ca. 500 B. C.). Nehemiah 8:8 suggests that the Jews of Ezra’s time did not know pure Hebrew well enough to understand the Law, thus needing a translation into the familiar Aramaic.
3. The primary language of Christ Aramaic was spoken by the Jews several centuries before Christ and was the primary vernacular of Palestine during the time of Christ. As Bruce says, “It [Aramaic] was thus the language commonly spoken in Palestine in New Testament times, the customary language of our Lord and His apostles and the early Palestinian church” (F. F. Bruce, The Books and the Parchments, Westwood: Revell, 1963, p. 56).
4. Aramaic expressions found in the New Testament
a. talitha cumi (little girl, get up) in Mark 5:41
b. ephphatha (be opened) in Mark 7:34
c. Eli, eli lama sabachthani (My God, my God, why hast thou forsaken me?) in Matthew 27:46
d. Jesus addressed God as Abba (Aramaic for Father) (see also Rom. 8:15 and Gal. 4:6)
e. Maranatha (“Our Lord, come!”) in 1 Corinthians 16:22
C. Greek Though Aramaic was the common language of Christ and the early Christians, Greek was the language of the New Testament.
1. Common Greek More precisely, the language of the New Testament is properly called Hellenistic or Koine (common) Greek. New Testament Greek was the language of the “common” man.
2. Why did God choose Greek? Probably because the language chosen for the universal proclamation of the Gospel would need to be one that was most widely known throughout the nations. This language was Greek. As Lightfoot states, “since the gospel was to be proclaimed to every creature. . . the New Testament writers made use of a language that was known everywhere. Greek in the first century, as English is today, was the ‘universal’ language” (Lightfoot, p. 31).
D. Are these three languages dead? Contrary to many people’s opinions these languages are not dead languages. Hebrew is the spoken language of the state of Israel. Aramaic is spoken in Damascus and Syria. Greek is spoken by millions of people today, though, obviously, it is quite different from the Greek of the New Testament. F. F. Bruce says, “But there is much less difference between modern Hebrew and Biblical Hebrew, between modern Greek and Biblical Greek, than there is between modern English and English as spoken in 1066.” (p. 33).
Canonicity: Determining and Discovering the God-inspired Books
I. Introduction to Canonicity
A. Significance of canonicity “If the Scriptures are indeed inspired by God then a significant question arises: Which books are inspired? Historically, it was important for the people of God to determine which books God had inspired and which ones were recognized as authoritative” (Enns, p. 170).
B. Difference between inspiration and canonicity “Inspiration indicates how the Bible received its authority, whereas canonization tells how the Bible received its acceptance. It is one thing for God to give the Scriptures their authority, and quite another for men to recognize that authority” (Geisler and Nix, p. 203).
C. What does “canon” mean?
1. Original meaning The original meaning of “canon” can be traced to the ancient Greeks who used the term in a literal sense. To them, a kanon was a rod, ruler, staff or measuring rod. Thus, a kanon was a standard for measurement. This literal meaning provided the basis for a later, extended use of the term. The word eventually was extended to mean a rule or standard for anything.
2. In regard to the Bible In theological usage, “canon” refers to authoritative Scripture. As F. F. Bruce says, “When we speak of the canon of scripture, the word ‘canon’ has a simple meaning. It means the list of books contained in scripture, the list of books recognized as worthy to be included in the sacred writings of a worshipping community. In a Christian context, we might define the word as ‘the list of the writings acknowledged by the Church as documents of the divine revelation. ’” (The Canon of Scripture,p. 17).
3. Usage in early church The term “canon,” in reference to the books of Scripture, developed with the early church fathers. The first clear application of this term to the Scriptures is attributed to Athanasius in A. D. 367. (F. F. Bruce, The Canon of Scripture, p. 17).
II. Determining the canon Who or what determined which books were canonical?
A. God determines the Canon Canonicity is determined by God. A book is not inspired because men made it canonical; it is canonical because God inspired it. Thus, canonicity is determined by inspiration.
B. Distinction between determination and discovery Understanding canonicity involves two related but separate issues: 1) Canonicity is determined by God and 2) Canonicity is discovered by man. A failure to keep this distinction leads to confusion. How a book received its authority is determined by God. How men discover and recognize that authority is another matter altogether.
C. False views concerning canonicity
1. Old Age determines canonicity Canonicity is not determined by the antiquity of a book. (This view was held by J. G. Eichorn (1780). He believed all books composed after Malachi’s time were excluded from consideration. Thus, he believed all Jewish books before Malachi were considered canonical.)
a. There are many books that are older than some of the books of the Bible that are not considered “canon.”
(1)Book of Jasher (Joshua 10:13)
(2)Book of the Wars of the Lord (Numbers 21:14)
(3)Books of the Jewish Apocrypha
b. Many of the canonical books were received into the canon shortly after they were written. Moses’ writings were considered as authoritative while he was still living (Deut. 31:24-26). Daniel accepted Jeremiah’s book as canonical (Dan. 9:2). Peter considered Paul’s letters to be Scripture (2 Peter 3:15-16).
2. Hebrew language determines canonicity Hitzig (ca. 1850) believed the use of the Hebrew language was the Jewish test for canonicity. However, books such as Ecclesiasticus, Tobit, and 1 Maccabees were rejected even though they were composed in Hebrew (see Gleason L. Archer, A Survey of Old Testament Introduction, p. 78).
3. Agreement with the Torah (Law) determines canonicity The Torah, though, is not the standard of canonicity (though all canonical books will agree with the Torah). Plus, Jewish fathers believed their Talmud and Midrash agreed with the Torah, but they were never believed to be canonical.
4. Religious value determines canonicity The very fact that a book is canonical guarantees that it will have religious value. But religious value does not necessarily make a book canonical. Many books with religious value have been written that have not been accepted into the Bible.
5. The Church determines canonicity (often associated with Roman Catholicism) According to this view, the church determines the canonicity of the books of the Bible. A book is canonical because the church declares it to be so. (It must also be noted that since the Roman Catholic Church sees itself as the determiner of the canon, it sees itself as having an authority to interpret the books of the canon that others do not have.) The following points, however, argue against this view:
a. God determines whether a book is inspired and thus canonical —churches and councils do not. Men do not determine which books are canonical. God does. God gives the books of the Bible their divine authority. God’s people recognize this authority but they do not determine its authority. As J. I. Packer has said, “The Church no more gave us the New Testament canon than Sir Isaac Newton gave us the force of gravity” (God Speaks to Man, p. 81).
b. Canon determined immediately The books of the Bible became canon the moment they were written. They did not need to wait for the church’s sanction to become canon. They were canon the moment they were written.
c. This view confuses the two related but separate issues: 1) the canon’s nature (determination) and 2) the canon’s discovery. James White in his book, The Roman Catholic Controversy, rightly points out how some people confuse the nature of the canon with how people come to know the contents of the canon. He uses an example to illustrate this:
“I have written eight books. The action of my writing those books creates the canon of my works. If a friend of mine does not have accurate or full knowledge of how many books I have written, does that mean there is no canon of my books? No, of course not. In fact, if I was the only one who knew how many books I had written, would that mean that the canon of my books does not exist? The point is clear. The canon is one issue, and it comes from God’s action of inspiring the Scriptures. Our knowledge of the canon is another. Our knowledge can grow and mature, as it did at times in history. But the canon is not defined by us nor is it affected by our knowledge or ignorance” (James R. White, The Roman CatholicControversy, Minneapolis: Bethany House, 1996. p. 94).
Development of the Old Testament Canon
I. The Canon of the Hebrew Bible
A. The twenty four books recognized as canonical (See chart on page 11.) (Remember that these twenty-four books correspond exactly to the books in our English Protestant Bibles which numbers thirty-nine. The difference is in the enumeration of the books.)
1. The Law (5) Genesis, Exodus, Leviticus, Numbers and Deuteronomy.
2. The Prophets (8) Joshua, Judges, Samuel, Kings, Isaiah, Jeremiah, Ezekiel and the Twelve.
3. The Writings (11) Psalms, Proverbs, Job, Song of Solomon, Ruth, Lamentations, Ecclesiastes, Esther, Daniel, Ezra-Nehemiah and Chronicles.
B. Origin of three-section division The division of the Hebrew Bible into three sections (not four or five, as in Greek, Latin, and English translations), known as the Law, the Prophets, and the Writings, can be traced back to the second century B. C. , when it is three times referred to in the prologue of Sirach, added by the Greek translator of the book in about 130 B. C. (Roger T. Beckwith, “Canon of the Hebrew Bible and the Old Testament,” in The Oxford Companion To The Bible, pp. 100-101). Jesus referred to this division in Luke 24:44 when He said “the Law of Moses and the Prophets and Psalms must be fulfilled.”
II. The growth and formation of the OT canon
A. Progressive collection of OT prophetic books (as recorded in the OT) From the beginning, the inspired writings of the Old Testament were collected by the Jews and revered as sacred and divinely authoritative.
1. Moses put the Book of the Covenant, including the Ten Commandments (Ex. 20:1—23:33), into writing and the people agreed to obey it (Ex. 24:3-8). The Book of the Covenant became part of the Book of Exodus and immediately was accepted at the Word of God.
2. The Book of Deuteronomy was immediately stored by the Ark in the Tabernacle after Moses wrote it (Deut. 31:24-26). Later it, with the rest of the Law of Moses, was moved to the Temple (2 Kings 22:8).
3. Joshua added his words and set them up in the sanctuary of the Lord (Josh. 24:26).
4. Daniel refers to “the books” which contained the “law of Moses” and the prophets (Dan. 9:2, 6, 11).
B. Later OT books quote earlier OT books as authoritative
1. The books of Moses, which were immediately recognized as canonical, are cited throughout the Old Testament from Joshua (1:7) to Malachi (4:4).
2. The events of Joshua are referred to in Judges (1:1, 20-21; 2:8). .
3. The books of Kings cites the life of David as told in the books of Samuel (1 Kings 3:14; 5:7; 8:16; 9:5).
4. Chronicles reviews Israel’s history from Genesis through Kings including material from Ruth (1 Chronicles 2:12-13).
5. The ninth chapter of Nehemiah reviews Israel’s history as recorded from Genesis through Ezra.
6. 1 Kings 4:32 refers to Solomon’s proverbs and songs.
7. Daniel cites Jeremiah 25 (Daniel 9:2).
8. Jonah recites parts from the Psalms (Jonah 2).
9. Ezekiel mentions both Job and Daniel (Ezekiel 14:14, 20).
NOTE: “Not every book is cited by a later one, however; but enough are cited to demonstrate that there was a growing collection of divinely authoritative books available to and quoted by subsequent prophets.” (Norman L. Geisler and William E. Nix, From God to Us, Chicago: Moody, 1974. p. 81).
C. Prophetic continuity A prophetic chain links the books of the Old Testament together.
1. Moses wrote the Pentateuch
2. Joshua, the author, of Joshua and perhaps the very end of Deuteronomy (which records Moses’ death), took over for Moses in writing inspired Scripture.
3. Samuel wrote of the history of David (1 Chron. 29:29).
4. Nathan, Ahijah and Iddo wrote of the history of Solomon (2 Chron. 9:29).
5. Shemaiah and Iddo wrote of the history of Rehoboam (2 Chron. 12:15).
6. Iddo wrote of the history of Abijah (2 Chron. 13:22).
7. Jehu wrote about Jehoshaphat’s reign (2 Chron. 20:34).
8. Isaiah wrote of Hezekiah’s reign (2 Chron. 32:32).
9. Unnamed prophets wrote about Manasseh’s reign (2 Chron. 33:19).
10. Jeremiah wrote just prior to and during the Babylonian exile.
11. Daniel and Ezekiel continued the prophetic ministry during the exile.
12. Ezra, after the exile, returned from Babylon with the books of Moses and the prophets. (Ezra 6:18; Neh. 9:14, 26-30). . 13. Nehemiah completed the chronology of OT prophetic continuity.
NOTE: “Each prophet from Moses through Nehemiah contributed to the growing collection which was preserved by the official prophetic community stemming from Samuel.” (Geisler and Nix, How We Got Our Bible, p. 83).
III. Factors contributing to the recognition of certain books as canonical
A. Tradition The well-established tradition that many of the books came from Moses or one of the other acknowledged prophets.
B. Spiritual authority of the books themselves — as they were used in public or private reading and in exposition.
C. Recognition in the Temple as sacred
D. Conviction of leaders and people The opinions of religious leaders and common convictions of the people about the books were considered.
E. Jesus and the Apostles “For Christians, there was the additional consideration that Jesus himself and his apostles, in the pages of the New Testament, often refer to the Jewish scriptures in general, and to many of the individual books as having the authority of God” (Beckwith, p. 100).
IV. End of OT canonical era Malachi, the last Old Testament book, was written around 430 B. C. The Old Testament canon era, then, as determined by God, lasted from 1445 B. C. to 430 B. C. (See Time Period of the Bible chart on page 13.). Evidences that the OT canon ceased at the time of Malachi include:
A. Josephus According to the Jewish historian, Josephus (A. D. 37-95), the Hebrew OT was complete and no more canonical writings were composed after the reign of Artaxerxes (464—424 B. C.) (The time of Malachi.):
“From Artaxerxes (the successor of Xerxes) until our time everything has been recorded, but has not been deemed worthy of like credit with what preceded, because the exact succession of the prophets ceased. . . . For though so long a time has now passed, no one has dared to add anything to them, or to take anything from them, or to alter anything in them” (Josephus, Against Apion I. 8.).
NOTE: Rationalist higher critics claim that portions of Scripture such as Daniel, Ecclesiastes, Song of Solomon and many of the Psalms were compiled many years after Malachi. According to Josephus, though, no additional material was ever included in the canonical twenty-two books during the centuries between 425 B. C. and A. D. 90. This presents a problem to those who challenge the traditional authorship of these books (Archer, p. 73).
B. The Talmud The Jewish Talmud states, “After the latter prophets Haggai, Zechariah, and Malachi, the Holy Spirit departed from Israel.”
C. New Testament The New Testament never quotes any OT book as authoritative after the time of Malachi.
V. Recognition of the Old Testament as completed canon When were all the books of our Old Testament canon recognized as canonical?
A. New Testament “Good evidence exists in the New Testament which shows that by the time of Jesus the canon of the Old Covenant had been fixed” (Lightfoot, p. 106).
1. Luke 24:44 The canonical writings, according to Jesus, are composed of the Law of Moses, the Prophets and the Psalms. This threefold division is equivalent to the three divisions of the Hebrew scriptures—the Law, the Prophets and the Writings.
2. Martyrs of the Old Testament Jesus once spoke of the time “from the blood of Abel to the blood of Zachariah” (Luke 11:51; cf. Matt. 23:35) when referring to the martyrs of the Old Testament. The first martyr of the Old Testament was Abel and the last martyr was Zachariah (cf. 2 Chron. 24:20-21). Since Chronicles is the last book in the Hebrew Bible, Jesus was making a comprehensive statement covering the known Old Testament (Genesis—Chronicles).
B. Josephus (A. D. 37-95) Josephus, in his Against Apion stated, “We have not tens of thousands of books, discordant and conflicting, but only twenty-two containing the record of all time, which have been justly believed to be divine.” (I. 8). (NOTE: “It is the opinion of most scholars that Josephus in deriving his number of twenty-two books joined Ruth to Judges and Lamentations to Jeremiah; and remembering that the Jews enumerated their books differently. . . the twenty-two books mentioned by Josephus equal our present thirty-nine books” (Lightfoot, p. 108)).
ALSO: “It is unlikely that Josephus’s classification of the books was his own; he probably reproduces a tradition with which he had been familiar for a long time, having learned it either in the priestly circle into which he was born or among the Pharisees with whose party he associated himself as a young man” (Bruce, The Canon of Scripture, pp. 33-34).
C. Council of Jamnia (A. D. 90) This council met to discuss the canonicity of Proverbs,
Ecclesiastes, Song of Solomon and Esther. Some have said that this council determined the limits of the Old Testament canon, and thus, the Old Testament canon was not finalized until A. D. 90. But as Bruce says, “The upshot of the Jamnia debates was the firm acknowledgment of all these books as Holy Scripture.” And after warning us not to “exaggerate the importance of the Jamnia debate” he said, “The books which they decided to acknowledge as canonical were already generally accepted, although questions had been raised about them” (Bruce, The Books and the Parchments, pp. 97-98). Thus, the Council of Jamnia did not include any knew books as canonical, it simply reaffirmed those books already considered canonical.
D. Bishop Melito of Sardis (A. D. 170) “Bishop Melito of Sardis (in modern Turkey) was pressed by a friend to obtain ‘an accurate statement of the ancient books as regards their number and their order. ’ Melito did, and as a result, gave a now famous list of the Old Testament books. Except for its lack of Esther, this list matches today’s Jewish and Protestant Old Testament” (Bruce Waltke in “How We Got Our Old Testament,” in Christian History, issue 43, Vol. XIII, No. 3, p. 32).
E. Early church fathers
1. Third century A. D. In the third century A. D. , Origen confirmed the testimony of Josephus on the number of books in the Hebrew canon. The books Origen listed correspond to the thirty-nine books of the Protestant Old Testament.
2. Fourth century A. D. “In the fourth century eight prominent Church fathers, Athanasius of Alexandria, Cyril of Jerusalem, Epiphanius of Cyprus, Amphilocius of Asia Minor, and Gregory Nazianzus of Cappadocia, Hilary of France, Rufinus of Italy, and Jerome have left us lists all of which agree with the Hebrew canon except for very minor variations. . .” (R. Laird Harris, Inspiration and Canonicity of the Bible, Grand Rapids: Zondervan, 1957, p. 189).
F. Conclusion The “evidence implies that by the beginning of the Christian era the identity of all the canonical books was well known and generally accepted” (Roger T. Beckwith, “The Canon of the Old Testament,” in The Origin of the Bible, p. 61.).
Old Testament Apocrypha and Pseudepigrapha
I. The issue Many books were written during the Old Testament era. Which ones are canon and which ones are not? How do we classify the many writings of the Old Testament era?
II. Old Testament arrangement overview Not all books written during the Old Testament era are Scripture. How are the different books classified? They can be classified into four categories.
A. Homologoumena — Books accepted by all
B. Antilegomena — Books disputed by some
C. Pseudepigrapha — Books rejected by all
D. Apocrypha — Books accepted by some
III. The Homologoumena (Books accepted by all)
A. Nature “The Homologoumena are books which once they were accepted into the canon were not subsequently questioned or disputed. They were recognized not only by early generations but by succeeding generations as well” (Geisler and Nix, p. 257).
B. Number The Homologoumena comprise thirty-four of the thirty-nine books in the Protestant Old Testament. The only books that are not part of the Homologoumena in the Protestant Old Testament are Song of Solomon, Ecclesiastes, Esther, Ezekiel and Proverbs.
IV. The Antilegomena (Books disputed by some)
A. Nature The Antilegomena are the several books that were initially and ultimately considered canonical but were, at one time, disputed by some of the Jewish community.
B. Number Five canonical books of the Old Testament fall into this category.
1. Song of Solomon The school of Shammai (first. cent. A. D.), as well as some others, expressed doubt about the canonicity of the Song of Solomon. The basic reason was that the book seemed sensual to some. The view of Rabbi Akiba ben Joseph (c. A. D. 50—132), however, prevailed as is evidenced in his statement, “God forbid!—No man in Israel ever disputed about the Song of Songs that it does not render the hands unclean [i. e. is not canonical]” (Geisler and Nix, p. 259).
2. Ecclesiastes One of the main objections to Ecclesiastes was that it was skeptical and that its talk of life being “vanity” was not fitting of Holy Scripture. This doubt about the book, however, is more of an interpretive issue than one concerning inspiration. The thrust of the book is that life lived apart from God is vanity. That is why at the conclusion of the book, Solomon can say, “Fear God and keep His commandments. . . for God will bring every act to judgment” (Eccl. 12:13-14). As with the other Antilegomena, this book, too, was accepted as canon.
3. Esther Esther was doubted by some because the name of God is absent from the book. People wondered how a book that did not mention God could be inspired. God’s sovereignty and providence, however, is prevalent throughout the book as He protected His people from extermination. Josephus and the Mishnah cite Esther as Scripture.
4. Ezekiel “This book was questioned by some because of its apparent anti-Mosaical teachings. The school of Shammai thought that the teaching of the book was not in harmony with the Mosaic law, and that the first ten chapters exhibited a tendency toward gnosticism” (Geisler and Nix, p. 261). However, no specific examples have been given to show that Ezekiel contradicts the Mosaic Law or that its chapters tend toward gnosticism. As Beckwith has observed, “evidence in favour of the canonicity of Ezekiel is so ample and so early that the book is something of an embarrassment to those who hold the common view about the date of the closing of the canon.” (Roger Beckwith, The Old Testament Canon in the New Testament Church and Its Background in Early Judaism, p. 86).
5. Proverbs Some claimed that Proverbs was not inspired because it supposedly contradicts itself (see Proverbs 26:4-5). Many rabbis, though, claimed that when interpreted correctly, Proverbs did not contradict itself. Support for Proverbs from the Pharisaic, Essene and Christian community strongly vouch for its canonicity.
V. The Pseudepigrapha (Books rejected by all)
A. Nature The term pseudepigrapha means writings attributed to fictitious authors. The Pseudepigrapha are books that are clearly spurious and inauthentic. Many of these works claim to have been written by biblical authors, but in reality were written between 200 B. C. and A. D. 200. Most of these books are made up of dreams, visions and revelations in the apocalyptic style of Ezekiel, Daniel and Zechariah (Geisler and Nix, pp. 262-63).
B. Number The actual number of Pseudepigrapha books is unknown. According to Bruce Metzger, “The number of Jewish and Jewish-Christian pseudepigraphic writings must once have been great. Jewish legend ascribes to Enoch no fewer than 366 such works, and 2 Esdras (14:46) tells of 70 secret books that are discriminated from the 24 canonical ones.” Some researchers of the Pseudepigrapha have listed more than 200 pseudepigrapha titles—many of these no longer extant. (Bruce M. Metzger, “The Apocrypha and Pseudepigrapha” in Expositor’s Bible Commentary, p. 170 fn. 3). For our purposes, 18 are worthy of mention. (List taken from Geisler and Nix, p. 263.).
1. The Book of Jubilee (Legendary) A midrashic expansion of biblical history from Creation to the First Passover.
2. The Letter of Aristeas (Legendary) Supposedly an eyewitness account of the translation of the Old Testament into Greek by seventy-two elders at the instruction of Eleazar the high priest. Scholars say this book was written between 200 B. C. and A. D. 33.
3. The Book of Adam and Eve (Legendary)
4. The Martyrdom of Isaiah (Legendary)
5. 1 Enoch (Apocalyptic) This book is cited in Jude 1:14-15 and is the longest of the surviving Jewish pseudepigraphic writings. It is a composite work, written by various authors in Aramaic during the last two centuries B. C. “Professing to embody a series of revelations granted to Enoch, the seventh from Adam, the anonymous authors discuss such matters as the origin of evil, the angels and their destinies, the nature of Gehenna and Paradise, and various astronomical and cosmological fancies” (Metzger, p. 171).
6. The Testament of the Twelve Patriarchs (Apocalyptic) A work based on Jacob’s words to his sons in Genesis 49.
7. The Sibylline Oracle (Apocalyptic)
8. The Assumption of Moses (Apocalyptic)
9. 2 Enoch, or The Book of the Secrets of Enoch (Apocalyptic) “The book relates Enoch’s travels through the seven heavens and the divine revelations that he received concerning creation, the history of the world, hell, and paradise. Its composition is dated by most scholars in the first half of the first Christian century” (Metzger, p. 173).
10. 2 Baruch, or The Syriac Apocalypse of Baruch (Apocalyptic)
11. 3 Baruch, or The Greek Apocalypse of Baruch (Apocalyptic)
12. 3 Maccabees (Didactical) This book has nothing to do with the Maccabees but probably received its name since it claims to describe events during the Maccabean period. The book contains impossibilities and exaggerations and was written shortly before or during the beginning of the Christian era.
13. 4 Maccabees (Didactical) This work is a Greek philosophical treatise addressed to Jews on the supremacy of reason over the passions (Metzger, p. 172). It was written between 150 B. C. and A. D. 70.
14. Pirke Aboth (Didactical)
15. The Story of Ahikar (Didactical)
16. The Psalms of Solomon (Poetical) Eighteen in number, these psalms were composed in the middle of the first century B. C. These psalms speak of the coming age when God will send His Messiah, of the house of David, to purge Jerusalem, subdue Gentile nations and rule in righteousness.
17. Psalm 151 (Poetical)
18. The Fragment of a Zadokite Work (Historical).
VI. The Apocrypha (Books accepted by some)
A. Nature “The word apocrypha has come into the English language from the Greek and basically means hidden. It was used very early in the sense of secretive or concealed, but was also used in reference to a book whose origin was doubtful or unknown. Eventually the word took on the meaning of non-canonical, and thus for centuries the non-canonical books have been known as apocryphal books. Yet in Protestant circles ‘the apocrypha’ is the normal designation for those extra books which are found in the Catholic Old Testament” (Lightfoot, p. 115). To summarize, Apocrypha can refer to:
1. “Something hard to understand” or “hidden”
2. All noncanonical books A general designation for all the books (including the pseudepigrapha) outside the Hebrew canon. The use of the term “apocrypha” to mean “noncanonical” goes back to the fifth century A. D. with Jerome (R. K. Harrison, “Old Testament and New Testament Apocrypha,” in The Origin of the Bible, p. 84).
3. The fifteen works found in the Alexandrian Canon and Septuagint that were not part of the Hebrew (Palestinian)Canon “‘The Apocrypha’ is the designation applied to a collection of fourteen or fifteen books (or parts of books) not included in the Masoretic Hebrew Bible, which were written during the last two centuries before Christ and the first century of the Christian era” (Metzger, p. 161).
4. Old Testament books and additions found in the Catholic Bible that are not found in the Protestant Bible (Post-Reformation meaning).
B. Confusion over the Apocrypha: Palestinian or Alexandrian Canon? The confusion over the Apocrypha revolves around the two traditions of the Old Testament canon. The Palestinian Canon contains the twenty-four books of the Hebrew Bible (thirty-nine in English) while the Alexandrian Canon contains the additional fifteen books we call the Apocrypha. (The Alexandrian Canon arose in Alexandria, Egypt where the Hebrew Scriptures were translated into the Greek Septuagint (LXX)).
C. The fifteen books of the Apocrypha (as noted by the Revised Standard Version (1957)):
1. The First Book of Esdras (150—100 B. C.) (not included in Catholic Bible) This work begins with a description of the Passover celebration under King Josiah and relates Jewish history down to the reading of the Law in the time of Ezra. It reproduces with little change 2 Chronicles 35:1—36:21, the book of Ezra and Nehemiah 7:73—8:13a. It also includes the story of three young men, in the court of Darius, who held a contest to determine the strongest thing in the world. 1 Esdras has legendary accounts which cannot be supported by Ezra, Nehemiah or 2 Chronicles.
2. The Second Book of Esdras (c. A. D. 100) (not included in Catholic Bible) Differs from the other fifteen books in that it is an apocalypse. It has seven revelations (3:1—14:48) in which the prophet is instructed by the angel Uriel concerning the great mysteries of the moral world. It reflects the Jewish despair following the destruction of Jerusalem in A. D. 70.
3. Tobit (c. 200—150 B. C.) The Book of Tobit describes the doings of Tobit, a man from the tribe of Naphtali, who was exiled to Ninevah where he zealously continued to observe the Mosaic Law. This book is known for its sound moral teaching and promotion of Jewish piety. It is also known for its mysticism and promotion of astrology and the teaching of Zoroastrianism (The Bible Almanac, eds. Packer, Tenney and White, p. 501).
4. Judith (c. 150 B. C.) Judith is a fictitious story of a Jewish woman who delivers her people. It reflects the patriotic mood and religious devotion of the Jews after the Maccabean rebellion.
5. The Additions to the Book of Esther (140-130 B. C.) 107 verses added to the book of Esther that were lacking in the original Hebrew form of the book.
6. The Wisdom of Solomon (c. 30 B. C.) This work was composed in Greek by an Alexandrian Jew who impersonated King Solomon.
7. Ecclesiasticus, or the Wisdom of Jesus the Son of Sirach (c. 180 B. C.) This book is the longest and one of the most highly esteemed of the apocryphal books. The author was a Jewish sage named Joshua (Jesus, in Greek) who taught young men at an academy in Jerusalem. Around 180 B. C. he turned his classroom lectures into two books. This work contains numerous maxims formulated in about 1,600 couplets and grouped according to topic (marriage, wealth, the law, etc. . .).
8. Baruch (c. 150-50 B. C.) This book claims to have been written in Babylon by a companion and recorder o | 
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